tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2887382220113280558.post8545912710599023847..comments2024-03-28T06:01:57.947-04:00Comments on <center>Original Pechanga Blog</center>: BIA Called OUT for its DELIBERATE Violations of THEIR TRUST RESPONSIBILITIES OPechangahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10687743661360604165noreply@blogger.comBlogger84125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2887382220113280558.post-89380231702108354832015-10-13T11:36:33.528-04:002015-10-13T11:36:33.528-04:00The point of this post was about the Trask's, ...The point of this post was about the Trask's, the frauds of San Pasqual. Everyone just went off topic, that's why everyone of us are in the same situation, we should learn how to listen. PERIOD. Anonymousnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2887382220113280558.post-34443030119042888362015-10-12T18:39:12.459-04:002015-10-12T18:39:12.459-04:00really , this is a human rights site .really , this is a human rights site .Anonymousnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2887382220113280558.post-14650835092749425982015-10-12T01:56:27.063-04:002015-10-12T01:56:27.063-04:00Why don't you just post the reference book ins...Why don't you just post the reference book instead of cut and paste.Anonymousnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2887382220113280558.post-36172910058690893482015-10-11T22:48:21.908-04:002015-10-11T22:48:21.908-04:00This comment has been removed by the author.Anonymoushttps://www.blogger.com/profile/11669798539821152197noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2887382220113280558.post-17186249335935301642015-10-11T22:47:58.750-04:002015-10-11T22:47:58.750-04:00Spirit Lodge
(Nariticong Tribe)
retold by
S. E. ...Spirit Lodge<br /><br /><br />(Nariticong Tribe)<br />retold by<br />S. E. Schlosser <br /> The great chief Quaquahela lived in peace with his people on the banks of the River Styx where it entered the lake waters. Their lives were busy and full. The warriors hunted and fished, the women cooked and cared for the old and the young, and all lived in peace with the natural world around them. <br /><br />Quaquahela determined one day to visit with a tribe far to the south of their village. He set out at dusk, paddling across the lake, and then walking inland towards the lodge of a friend, where he would spend the night before resuming his journey. He had gone only a few yards from the lake shore when he heard a terrible snarling, and a huge bear came bursting forth out of the bushes nearby. Quaquahela was well-armed with his war club and his hunting gear, but the bear was his totem, and so it was forbidden for him to kill the creature. Thus he fled back toward his canoe, intent on escape. But the enraged bear threw itself forward and knocked him to the ground. <br /><br />Anonymousnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2887382220113280558.post-17893516807388753722015-10-11T22:46:47.642-04:002015-10-11T22:46:47.642-04:00It was a time of rejoicing, for Tindeh - Fire - ha...It was a time of rejoicing, for Tindeh - Fire - had come to Earth. But Rainbow Crow sat apart, saddened by his dull, ugly feathers and his rasping voice. Then he felt the touch of wind on his face. He looked up and saw the Creator Who Creates By Thinking What Will Be walking toward him. <br /><br />"Do not be sad, Rainbow Crow," the Creator said. "All animals will honor you for the sacrifice you made for them. And when the people come, they will not hunt you, for I have made your flesh taste of smoke so that it is no good to eat and your black feathers and hoarse voice will prevent man from putting you into a cage to sing for him. You will be free." <br /><br />Then the Creator pointed to Rainbow Crow's black feathers. Before his eyes, Rainbow Crow saw the dull feathers become shiny and inside each one, he could see all the colors of the rainbow. "This will remind everyone who sees you of the service you have been to your people," he said, "and the sacrifice you made that saved them all." <br /><br />And so shall it ever be.Anonymousnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2887382220113280558.post-70201700434065012562015-10-11T22:46:23.604-04:002015-10-11T22:46:23.604-04:00Rainbow Crow
(Lenni Lenape Tribe)
retold by
S. E...Rainbow Crow<br /><br /><br />(Lenni Lenape Tribe)<br />retold by<br />S. E. Schlosser <br /> It was so cold. Snow fell constantly, and ice formed over all the waters. The animals had never seen snow before. At first, it was a novelty, something to play in. But the cold increased tenfold, and they began to worry. The little animals were being buried in the snow drifts and the larger animals could hardly walk because the snow was so deep. Soon, all would perish if something were not done. <br /><br />"We must send a messenger to Kijiamuh Ka'ong, the Creator Who Creates By Thinking What Will Be," said Wise Owl. "We must ask him to think the world warm again so that Spirit Snow will leave us in peace." <br /><br />The animals were pleased with this plan. They began to debate among themselves, trying to decide who to send up to the Creator. Wise Owl could not see well during the daylight, so he could not go. Coyote was easily distracted and like playing tricks, so he could not be trusted. Turtle was steady and stable, but he crawled too slowly. Finally, Rainbow Crow, the most beautiful of all the birds with shimmering feathers of rainbow hues and an enchanting singing voice, was chosen to go to Kijiamuh Ka'ong. <br /><br />It was an arduous journey, three days up and up into the heavens, passed the trees and clouds, beyond the sun and the moon, and even above all the stars. He was buffeted by winds and had no place to rest, but he carried bravely on until he reached Heaven. When Rainbow Crow reached the Holy Place, he called out to the Creator, but received no answer. The Creator was too busy thinking up what would be to notice even the most beautiful of birds. So Rainbow Crow began to sing his most beautiful song. <br /><br />The Creator was drawn from his thoughts by the lovely sound, and came to see which bird was making it. He greeted Rainbow Crow kindly and asked what gift he could give the noble bird in exchange for his song. Rainbow Crow asked the Creator to un-think the snow, so that the animals of Earth would not be buried and freeze to death. But the Creator told Rainbow Crow that the snow and the ice had spirits of their own and could not be destroyed. <br /><br />"What shall we do then?" asked the Rainbow Crow. "We will all freeze or smother under the snow." <br /><br />"You will not freeze," the Creator reassured him, "For I will think of Fire, something that will warm all creatures during the cold times." <br /><br />The Creator stuck a stick into the blazing hot sun. The end blazed with a bright, glowing fire which burned brightly and gave off heat. "This is Fire," he told Rainbow Crow, handing him the cool end of the stick. "You must hurry to Earth as fast as you can fly before the stick burns up." <br /><br />Rainbow Crow nodded his thanks to the Creator and flew as fast as he could go. It was a three-day trip to Heaven, and he was worried that the Fire would burn out before he reached the Earth. The stick was large and heavy, but the fire kept Rainbow Crow warm as he descended from Heaven down to the bright path of the stars. Then the Fire grew hot as it came closer to Rainbow Crows feathers. As he flew passed the Sun, his tail caught on fire, turning the shimmering beautiful feathers black. By the time he flew passed the Moon, his whole body was black with soot from the hot Fire. When he plunged into the Sky and flew through the clouds, the smoke got into his throat, strangling his beautiful singing voice. <br /><br />By the time Rainbow Crow landed among the freezing-cold animals of Earth, he was black as tar and could only Caw instead of sing. He delivered the fire to the animals, and they melted the snow and warmed themselves, rescuing the littlest animals from the snow drifts where they lay buried. <br /><br />Anonymousnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2887382220113280558.post-48441162637232506262015-10-11T22:45:14.778-04:002015-10-11T22:45:14.778-04:00Rabbit Plays Tug-of-War
A Native American Legen...Rabbit Plays Tug-of-War<br /><br /><br /><br />A Native American Legend <br /><br />(Creek/Muscogee Tribe) <br /><br />retold by<br /><br />S. E. Schlosser<br /><br />Now Rabbit had a favorite place on the river where he always went to drink water. It was on a bend in the river, and two Snakes lived there, one on the upper side of the bend and one on the lower. Rabbit soon learned that neither of the Snakes knew that the other Snake lived there. <br /><br />Ho, ho, ho, thought Rabbit. I am going to have a bit of fun! <br /><br />Rabbit went to the Snake that lived on the upper bend of the river. "I am a very strong Rabbit," he told the Snake. "I bet I can pull you right out of the water." <br /><br />"I bet you can't!" said the Snake, who was very strong indeed. <br /><br />"I will go get a grape vine," said Rabbit. "You will pull one end and I will pull the other. "If I pull you out of the water, I win the contest. If you pull me into the water, then I win." <br /><br />The Snake on the upper bend agreed. Then Rabbit went to the Snake on the lower bend and made the same deal. He told both Snakes that he would be standing out of sight on top of the river bank and would give a whoop when he was in place and ready to start the contest. Both Snakes were pleased with the arrangement. They were sure they would win against such a feeble little Rabbit. <br /><br />Rabbit took a long grape vine and strung it across the wide bend in the river. He handed one end to the first Snake and the other end to the second Snake. Then he gave a loud whoop from the middle of the river bank and the two Snakes started tugging and pulling with all their might. <br /><br />"That Rabbit is really strong," thought the Snake on the upper bank. He would tug and tug and the vine would come a little closer to him and then he would nearly be pulled out of the water. <br /><br />"My, Rabbit is much stronger than he appears," thought the Snake on the lower bank after he was almost hurled out of the water by an extra strong pull from up the river. <br /><br />Rabbit sat on the bank above both Snakes and laughed and laughed. The Snakes heard him laughing and realized that they had been fooled. Letting go of the rope, they swam to the middle of the bend and met each other for the first time. <br /><br />Both Snakes were angry with Rabbit for making them look foolish. They agreed that Rabbit could no longer drink from his favorite place on the river bend where they lived. In spite of his protests, they sent Rabbit away and would not let him come down to the riverbank anymore. So whenever Rabbit grew thirsty, he had to turn himself into a faun in order to get a drink from the river. <br /><br />After that, Rabbit decided not to play any more jokes on Snakes. <br />Anonymousnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2887382220113280558.post-48441497638927396772015-10-11T22:44:29.492-04:002015-10-11T22:44:29.492-04:00Pele's Revenge
A Hawaii Legend
retold by ...Pele's Revenge<br /><br /><br /><br />A Hawaii Legend <br /><br />retold by <br /><br />S.E. Schlosser <br /><br />Ohi'a and Lehua loved each other from the moment they first saw each other at a village dance. Ohi'a was a tall strong man with a handsome face and lithe form. He was something of a trickster and was first in all the sports played by all the young men. Lehua was gentle and sweet and as fragile as a flower. Her beauty was the talk of the island, and her father was quite protective of his only child. <br /><br />When Lehua saw the handsome, bold Ohi'a speaking with her father beside the bonfire, she blushed crimson, unable to take her eyes from the young man. At the same moment, Ohi'a glanced up from his conversation and his mouth dropped open at the sight of the beautiful maiden. He was not even aware that he had stopped speaking right in the middle of his sentence, so overwhelmed was he by the sight of the fair maiden across the fire from him. <br /><br />Lehua's father nudged the young man, recalling him to his duties as a guest. Ohi'a stuttered and stammered apologies, trying to continue his conversation while keeping one eye on the fair Lehua. Lehua's father was amused by the young man's obvious infatuation with his daughter. He quite liked this bold trickster, and so he offered to introduce Ohi'a to his daughter. The young man almost fell over in his haste as they walked across the clearing to where Lehua stood with her friends. <br /><br />From that moment, there was no other woman for Ohi'a but Lehua. He had eyes only for her, and courted her with a passion and zeal that swiftly won her heart. Her father gave his only daughter gladly into the keeping of the strong young man, and the young couple lived quite happily for several months in a new home Ohi'a built for his bride. <br /><br />Then one day the goddess Pele was walking in the forest near the home of the handsome Ohi'a and spied the young man at work. Pele was smitten by him, and went at once to engage him in conversation. Ohi'a spoke politely to the beautiful woman, but did not respond to her advances, which infuriated Pele. She was determined to have this young man for herself, but before she could renew her efforts, Lehua came to the place her young husband was working to bring him his midday meal. <br /><br />When he saw his lovely wife, Ohi'a's face lit up with love. He dropped everything at once and went to her side, leaving a fuming Pele to stare in jealous rage at the young couple. Dropping her human disguise, the goddess transformed into a raging column of fire and struck Ohi'a down, transforming him into a twisted ugly tree in revenge for spurning her advances. <br /><br />Lehua fell to her knees beside the twisted tree that had once been her husband. Tears streaming down her lovely face, she begged Pele to turn him back into a man or else turn her into a tree, as she could not bear to be separated from her beloved. But Pele ignored the girl, taking herself up to the cool heights, her anger satisfied. But the gods saw what Pele had done to the innocent lovers and were angry. As Lehua lay weeping in despair, the gods reached down and transformed the girl into a beautiful red flower, which they placed upon the twisted Ohi'a tree, so that she and her beloved husband would never more be apart. <br /><br />From that day to this, the Ohi'a tree has blossomed with the beautiful red Lehua flowers. While the flowers remain on the tree, the weather remains sunny and fair. But when a flower is plucked from the tree, then heavy rain falls upon the land like tears, for Lehua still cannot bear to be separated from her beloved husband Ohi'a. <br />Anonymousnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2887382220113280558.post-66339785246899098872015-10-11T22:34:48.077-04:002015-10-11T22:34:48.077-04:00Why didn't you just name the book instead if c...Why didn't you just name the book instead if copy and paste?Anonymousnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2887382220113280558.post-23976208310268883052015-10-11T18:46:13.048-04:002015-10-11T18:46:13.048-04:00— Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, 1857, What was Tan...— Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, 1857, What was Taney thinking? American Indian Citizenship in the era of Dred Scott, Frederick E. Hoxie, April 2007.[93]<br /><br />After the American Civil War, the Civil Rights Act of 1866 states, "that all persons born in the United States, and not subject to any foreign power, excluding Indians not taxed, are hereby declared to be citizens of the United States".[94] This was affirmed by the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment. The concept of Native Americans as U.S. citizens fell out of favor among politicians at the time. Senator Jacob Howard of Michigan commented, “I am not yet prepared to pass a sweeping act of naturalization by which all the Indian savages, wild or tame, belonging to a tribal relation, are to become my fellow-citizens and go to the polls and vote with me". (Congressional Globe, 1866, 2895)[95] In a Senate floor debate regarding the Fourteenth Amendment, James Rood Doolittle of Wisconsin stated, " ... all those wild Indians to be citizens of the United States, the Great Republic of the world, whose citizenship should be a title as proud as that of king, and whose danger is that you may degrade that citizenship (Congressional Globe, 1866, 2892)."[95]<br /><br />Indian Appropriations Act of 1871[edit]<br /><br />In 1871 Congress added a rider to the Indian Appropriations Act ending United States recognition of additional Native American tribes or independent nations, and prohibiting additional treaties.<br /><br /><br />That hereafter no Indian nation or tribe within the territory of the United States shall be acknowledged or recognized as an independent nation, tribe, or power with whom the United States may contract by treaty: Provided, further, that nothing herein contained shall be construed to invalidate or impair the obligation of any treaty heretofore lawfully made and ratified with any such Indian nation or tribe.<br /><br />— Indian Appropriations Act of 1871[96]Anonymousnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2887382220113280558.post-74379400356722106402015-10-11T18:45:51.693-04:002015-10-11T18:45:51.693-04:00Native Americans and U.S. Citizenship[edit]
...Native Americans and U.S. Citizenship[edit]<br /><br /><br /> <br /><br /><br /> Portraits of Native Americans from the Cherokee, Cheyenne, Choctaw, Comanche, Iroquois, and Muscogee tribes in American attire. Photos date from 1868 to 1924.<br />In 1817, the Cherokee became the first Native Americans recognized as U.S. citizens. Under Article 8 of the 1817 Cherokee treaty, "Upwards of 300 Cherokees (Heads of Families) in the honest simplicity of their souls, made an election to become American citizens."[86][87] The next earliest recorded date of Native Americans' becoming U.S. citizens was in 1831, when some Mississippi Choctaw became citizens after the United States Congress ratified the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek.[88][89][90][91]<br /><br />Article 22 sought to put a Choctaw representative in the U.S. House of Representatives.[88] Under article XIV of that treaty, any Choctaw who elected not to move with the Choctaw Nation could become an American citizen when he registered and if he stayed on designated lands for five years after treaty ratification. Through the years, Native Americans became U.S. citizens by:<br /><br /><br />1. Treaty provision (as with the Cherokee)<br /> 2. Registration and land allotment under the Dawes Act of February 8, 1887<br /> 3. Issuance of Patent in Fee simple<br /> 4. Adopting Habits of Civilized Life<br /> 5. Minor Children<br /> 6. Citizenship by Birth<br /> 7. Becoming Soldiers and Sailors in the U.S. Armed Forces<br /> 8. Marriage to a U.S. citizen<br /> 9. Special Act of Congress.<br /><br /><br />In 1857, Chief Justice Roger B. Taney expressed the opinion of the court that since Native Americans were "free and independent people" that they could become U.S. citizens.[92][93] Taney asserted that Native Americans could be naturalized and join the "political community" of the United States.[93]<br /><br /><br />[Native Americans], without doubt, like the subjects of any other foreign Government, be naturalized by the authority of Congress, and become citizens of a State, and of the United States; and if an individual should leave his nation or tribe, and take up his abode among the white population, he would be entitled to all the rights and privileges which would belong to an emigrant from any other foreign people.Anonymousnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2887382220113280558.post-12646276153145501712015-10-11T18:44:44.706-04:002015-10-11T18:44:44.706-04:00Civil War[edit]
For more details on this topic, s...Civil War[edit]<br /><br />For more details on this topic, see Native Americans in the American Civil War.<br /><br /><br /> <br /><br /><br />Ely Parker was a Union Civil War General who wrote the terms of surrender between the United States and the Confederate States of America.[80] Parker was one of two Native Americans to reach the rank of Brigadier General during the Civil War.<br />Many Native Americans served in the military during the Civil War, on both sides.[81] By fighting with the whites, Native Americans hoped to gain favor with the prevailing government by supporting the war effort.[81][82]<br /><br /><br /> <br /><br /><br />Cherokee confederates reunion in New Orleans, 1903.<br />General Ely S. Parker, a member of the Seneca tribe, created the articles of surrender which General Robert E. Lee signed at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865. Gen. Parker, who served as Gen. Ulysses S. Grant's military secretary and was a trained attorney, was once rejected for Union military service because of his race. At Appomattox, Lee is said to have remarked to Parker, "I am glad to see one real American here," to which Parker replied, "We are all Americans."[81] General Stand Watie, a leader of the Cherokee Nation and Confederate Indian cavalry commander, was the last Confederate General to surrender his troops.[83]<br /><br />Removals and reservations[edit]<br /><br />Main article: Americanization of Native Americans<br /><br />Further information: List of Native American reservations in the United States<br /><br />In the 19th century, the incessant westward expansion of the United States incrementally compelled large numbers of Native Americans to resettle further west, often by force, almost always reluctantly. Native Americans believed this forced relocation illegal, given the Hopewell Treaty of 1785. Under President Andrew Jackson, United States Congress passed the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which authorized the President to conduct treaties to exchange Native American land east of the Mississippi River for lands west of the river.<br /><br />As many as 100,000 Native Americans relocated to the West as a result of this Indian Removal policy. In theory, relocation was supposed to be voluntary and many Native Americans did remain in the East. In practice, great pressure was put on Native American leaders to sign removal treaties.<br /><br />The most egregious violation of the stated intention of the removal policy took place under the Treaty of New Echota, which was signed by a dissident faction of Cherokees but not the principal chief. The following year, the Cherokee conceded to removal, but Georgia included their land in a lottery for European-American settlement before that. President Jackson used the military to gather and transport the Cherokee to the west, whose timing and lack of adequate supplies led to the deaths of an estimated 4,000 Cherokees on the Trail of Tears. About 17,000 Cherokees, along with approximately 2,000 enslaved blacks held by Cherokees, were taken by force migration to Indian Territory.[84]<br /><br />Tribes were generally located to reservations where they could more easily be separated from traditional life and pushed into European-American society. Some southern states additionally enacted laws in the 19th century forbidding non-Native American settlement on Native American lands, with the intention to prevent sympathetic white missionaries from aiding the scattered Native American resistance.[85]<br />Anonymousnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2887382220113280558.post-9218701372935129182015-10-11T18:43:54.393-04:002015-10-11T18:43:54.393-04:0019th century[edit]
Resistance[edit]
Tecumse...19th century[edit]<br /><br />Resistance[edit]<br /><br /><br /> <br /><br /><br />Tecumseh was the Shawnee leader of Tecumseh's War who attempted to organize an alliance of Native American tribes throughout North America.[74]<br />As American expansion continued, Native Americans resisted settlers' encroachment in several regions of the new nation (and in unorganized territories), from the Northwest to the Southeast, and then in the West, as settlers encountered the tribes of the Great Plains.<br /><br />East of the Mississippi River, an intertribal army led by Tecumseh, a Shawnee chief, fought a number of engagements in the Northwest during the period 1811–12, known as Tecumseh's War. In the latter stages, Tecumseh's group allied with the British forces in the War of 1812 and was instrumental in the conquest of Detroit. Conflicts in the Southeast include the Creek War and Seminole Wars, both before and after the Indian Removals of most members of the Five Civilized Tribes beginning in the 1830s under President Andrew Jackson's policies.<br /><br />Native American nations on the plains in the west continued armed conflicts with the United States throughout the 19th century, through what were called generally "Indian Wars." The Battle of Little Bighorn (1876) was one of the greatest Native American victories. Defeats included the Sioux Uprising of 1862,[75] the Sand Creek Massacre (1864) and Wounded Knee in 1890.[76] Indian Wars continued into the early 20th century.<br /><br />According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census (1894),<br /><br /><br />"The Indian wars under the government of the United States have been more than 40 in number. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white men, women and children, including those killed in individual combats, and the lives of about 30,000 Indians. The actual number of killed and wounded Indians must be very much higher than the given... Fifty percent additional would be a safe estimate..."[77]<br /><br />American expansion[edit]<br /><br /><br /> <br /><br /><br /> Native Americans flee from the allegorical representation of Manifest Destiny, Columbia, painted in 1872 by John Gast<br />In July 1845, the New York newspaper editor John L. O’Sullivan coined the phrase, "Manifest Destiny," as the "design of Providence" supporting the territorial expansion of the United States.[78] Manifest Destiny had serious consequences for Native Americans, since continental expansion for the United States took place at the cost of their occupied land. Manifest Destiny was a justification for expansion and westward movement, or, in some interpretations, an ideology or doctrine that helped to promote the process of civilization. Advocates of Manifest Destiny believed that expansion was not only good, but that it was obvious and certain. The term was first used primarily by Jacksonian Democrats in the 1840s to promote the annexation of much of what is now the Western United States (the Oregon Territory, the Texas Annexation, and the Mexican Cession).<br /><br /><br />What a prodigious growth this English race, especially the American branch of it, is having! How soon will it subdue and occupy all the wild parts of this continent and of the islands adjacent. No prophecy, however seemingly extravagant, as to future achievements in this way [is] likely to equal the reality.<br /><br />— Rutherford Birchard Hayes, U.S. President, January 1, 1857, Personal Diary.[79]<br /><br />The age of Manifest Destiny, which came to be associated with extinguishing American Indian territorial claims and removing them to reservations, gained ground as the United States population explored and settled west of the Mississippi River. Although Indian Removal from the Southeast had been proposed by some as a humanitarian measure to ensure their survival away from Americans, conflicts of the 19th century led some European-Americans to regard the natives as "savages".<br /><br />Anonymousnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2887382220113280558.post-49257313743955605592015-10-11T18:43:05.232-04:002015-10-11T18:43:05.232-04:00Robert Remini, a historian, wrote that "once ...Robert Remini, a historian, wrote that "once the Indians adopted the practice of private property, built homes, farmed, educated their children, and embraced Christianity, these Native Americans would win acceptance from white Americans."[70] The United States appointed agents, like Benjamin Hawkins, to live among the Native Americans and to teach them how to live like whites.[71]<br /><br /><br />How different would be the sensation of a philosophic mind to reflect that instead of exterminating a part of the human race by our modes of population that we had persevered through all difficulties and at last had imparted our Knowledge of cultivating and the arts, to the Aboriginals of the Country by which the source of future life and happiness had been preserved and extended. But it has been conceived to be impracticable to civilize the Indians of North America — This opinion is probably more convenient than just.<br /><br />— Henry Knox to George Washington, 1790s.[66]<br /><br /><br /> <br /><br /><br />Benjamin Hawkins, seen here on his plantation, teaches Creek Native Americans how to use European technology. Painted in 1805.<br />In the late 18th century, reformers starting with Washington and Knox,[72] supported educating native children and adults, in efforts to "civilize" or otherwise assimilate Native Americans to the larger society (as opposed to relegating them to reservations). The Civilization Fund Act of 1819 promoted this civilization policy by providing funding to societies (mostly religious) who worked on Native American improvement.<br /><br /><br />I rejoice, brothers, to hear you propose to become cultivators of the earth for the maintenance of your families. Be assured you will support them better and with less labor, by raising stock and bread, and by spinning and weaving clothes, than by hunting. A little land cultivated, and a little labor, will procure more provisions than the most successful hunt; and a woman will clothe more by spinning and weaving, than a man by hunting. Compared with you, we are but as of yesterday in this land. Yet see how much more we have multiplied by industry, and the exercise of that reason which you possess in common with us. Follow then our example, brethren, and we will aid you with great pleasure...<br /><br />— President Thomas Jefferson, Brothers of the Choctaw Nation, December 17, 1803[73]Anonymousnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2887382220113280558.post-4512540751069019452015-10-11T18:42:42.373-04:002015-10-11T18:42:42.373-04:0018th century United States[edit]
The United State...18th century United States[edit]<br /><br />The United States was eager to expand, to develop farming and settlements in new areas, and to satisfy land hunger of settlers from New England and new immigrants. The national government initially sought to purchase Native American land by treaties. The states and settlers were frequently at odds with this policy.[65]<br /><br /><br /> <br /><br /><br />George Washington advocated the advancement of Native American society and he "harbored some measure of goodwill towards the Indians."[66]<br />European nations sent Native Americans (sometimes against their will) to the Old World as objects of curiosity. They often entertained royalty and were sometimes prey to commercial purposes. Christianization of Native Americans was a charted purpose for some European colonies.<br /><br /><br />Whereas it hath at this time become peculiarly necessary to warn the citizens of the United States against a violation of the treaties.... I do by these presents require, all officers of the United States, as well civil as military, and all other citizens and inhabitants thereof, to govern themselves according to the treaties and act aforesaid, as they will answer the contrary at their peril.<br /><br />— George Washington, Proclamation Regarding Treaties, 1790.[67]<br /><br />United States policy toward Native Americans had continued to evolve after the American Revolution. George Washington and Henry Knox believed that Native Americans were equals but that their society was inferior. Washington formulated a policy to encourage the "civilizing" process.[68] Washington had a six-point plan for civilization which included:<br />1.impartial justice toward Native Americans<br />2.regulated buying of Native American lands<br />3.promotion of commerce<br />4.promotion of experiments to civilize or improve Native American society<br />5.presidential authority to give presents<br />6.punishing those who violated Native American rights.[69]<br /><br /><br />Anonymousnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2887382220113280558.post-35082937815241675902015-10-11T18:41:29.978-04:002015-10-11T18:41:29.978-04:00American Revolution[edit]
Yamacraw Creek Na...American Revolution[edit]<br /><br /><br /> <br /><br /><br /> Yamacraw Creek Native Americans meet with the Trustee of the colony of Georgia in England, July 1734. The painting shows a Native American boy (in a blue coat) and woman (in a red dress) in European clothing.<br />During the American Revolution, the newly proclaimed United States competed with the British for the allegiance of Native American nations east of the Mississippi River. Most Native Americans who joined the struggle sided with the British, based both on their trading relationships and hopes that colonial defeat would result in a halt to further colonial expansion onto Native American land. Many native communities were divided over which side to support in the war and others wanted to remain neutral. The first native community to sign a treaty with the new United States Government was the Lenape. For the Iroquois Confederacy, based in New York, the American Revolution resulted in civil war. The only Iroquois tribes to ally with the colonials were the Oneida and Tuscarora.<br /><br />Frontier warfare during the American Revolution was particularly brutal, and numerous atrocities were committed by settlers and native tribes alike. Noncombatants suffered greatly during the war. Military expeditions on each side destroyed villages and food supplies to reduce the ability of people to fight, as in frequent raids by both sides in the Mohawk Valley and western New York.[62] The largest of these expeditions was the Sullivan Expedition of 1779, in which American colonial troops destroyed more than 40 Iroquois villages to neutralize Iroquois raids in upstate New York. The expedition failed to have the desired effect: Native American activity became even more determined.<br /><br /><br />American Indians have played a central role in shaping the history of the nation, and they are deeply woven into the social fabric of much of American life.... During the last three decades of the 20th century, scholars of ethnohistory, of the "new Indian history," and of Native American studies forcefully demonstrated that to understand American history and the American experience, one must include American Indians.<br /><br />— Robbie Ethridge, Creek Country.[63]<br /><br /><br /> <br /><br /><br />Mishikinakwa ("Little Turtle")'s forces defeated an American force of nearly 1000 U.S Army soldiers and other casualties at the Battle of the Wabash in 1791.<br /><br /> <br /><br /><br /> Bronze medals struck at behest of Virginia governor Thomas Jefferson and carried by Joseph Martin to give to Cherokee allies of colonial forces. Notice peace pipe atop the medal<br />The British made peace with the Americans in the Treaty of Paris (1783), through which they ceded vast Native American territories to the United States without informing or consulting with the Native Americans. The Northwest Indian War was led by Native American tribes trying to repulse American settlers. The United States initially treated the Native Americans who had fought as allies with the British as a conquered people who had lost their lands. Although most members of the Iroquois tribes went to Canada with the Loyalists, others tried to stay in New York and western territories to maintain their lands. The state of New York made a separate treaty with Iroquois nations and put up for sale 5,000,000 acres (20,000 km2) of land that had previously been their territories. The state established small reservations in western New York for the remnant peoples.<br /><br /><br />The Indians presented a reverse image of European civilization which helped America establish a national identity that was neither savage nor civilized.<br /><br />— Charles Sanford, The Quest for Paradise[64]Anonymousnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2887382220113280558.post-4869662619597004532015-10-11T18:40:50.402-04:002015-10-11T18:40:50.402-04:00Foundations for freedom[edit]
Further information...Foundations for freedom[edit]<br /><br />Further information: Great Law of Peace<br /><br /><br /> <br /><br /><br />The Treaty of Penn with the Indians by Benjamin West painted in 1771.<br />Some Europeans considered Native American societies to be representative of a golden age known to them only in folk history.[57] The political theorist Jean Jacques Rousseau wrote that the idea of freedom and democratic ideals was born in the Americas because "it was only in America" that Europeans from 1500 to 1776 knew of societies that were "truly free."[57]<br /><br /><br />Natural freedom is the only object of the policy of the [Native Americans]; with this freedom do nature and climate rule alone amongst them ... [Native Americans] maintain their freedom and find abundant nourishment... [and are] people who live without laws, without police, without religion.<br /><br />— Jean Jacques Rousseau[57]<br /><br />In the 20th century, some writers have credited the Iroquois nations' political confederacy and democratic government as being influences for the development of the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution.[58][59] In October 1988, the U.S. Congress passed Concurrent Resolution 331 to recognize the influence of the Iroquois Constitution upon the U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights.[60]<br /><br />But, leading historians of the period note that historic evidence is lacking to support such an interpretation. Gordon Wood wrote, "The English colonists did not need the Indians to tell them about federalism or self-government. The New England Confederation was organized as early as 1643."[61] The historian Jack Rakove, a specialist in early American history, in 2005 noted that the voluminous documentation of the Constitutional proceedings "contain no significant reference to Iroquois."[61] Secondly, he notes: "All the key political concepts that were the stuff of American political discourse before the Revolution and after, had obvious European antecedents and referents: bicameralism, separation of powers, confederations, and the like." [61]<br />Anonymousnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2887382220113280558.post-52741823202008166972015-10-11T18:40:09.652-04:002015-10-11T18:40:09.652-04:00Animal introductions[edit]
With the meeting of tw...Animal introductions[edit]<br /><br />With the meeting of two worlds, animals, insects, and plants were carried from one to the other, both deliberately and by chance, in what is called the Columbian Exchange. Sheep, pigs, horses, and cattle were all Old World animals that were introduced to contemporary Native Americans who never knew such animals.[55]<br /><br />In the 16th century, Spaniards and other Europeans brought horses to Mexico. Some of the horses escaped and began to breed and increase their numbers in the wild. The early American horse had been game for the earliest humans on the continent. It was hunted to extinction about 7000 BCE, just after the end of the last glacial period.[citation needed] Native Americans benefited by reintroduction of horses. As they adopted use of the animals, they began to change their cultures in substantial ways, especially by extending their nomadic ranges for hunting.<br /><br />The reintroduction of the horse to North America had a profound impact on Native American culture of the Great Plains. The tribes trained and used horses to ride and to carry packs or pull travois. The people fully incorporated the use of horses into their societies and expanded their territories. They used horses to carry goods for exchange with neighboring tribes, to hunt game, especially bison, and to conduct wars and horse raids.<br /><br />King Philip's War[edit]<br /><br />Main article: King Philip's War<br /><br />King Philip's War, also called Metacom's War or Metacom's Rebellion, was an armed conflict between Native American inhabitants of present-day southern New England and English colonists and their Native American allies from 1675 to 1676. It continued in northern New England (primarily on the Maine frontier) even after King Philip was killed, until a treaty was signed at Casco Bay in April 1678.[citation needed] According to a combined estimate of loss of life in Schultz and Tougias' King Philip's War, The History and Legacy of America's Forgotten Conflict (based on sources from the Department of Defense, the Bureau of Census, and the work of Colonial historian Francis Jennings), 800 out of 52,000 English colonists of New England (1 out of every 65) and 3,000 out of 20,000 natives (3 out of every 20) lost their lives due to the war, which makes it proportionately one of the bloodiest and costliest in the history of America.[citation needed] More than half of New England's 90 towns were assaulted by Native American warriors. One in ten soldiers on both sides were wounded or killed.[56]<br /><br />The war is named after the main leader of the Native American side, Metacomet (also known as Metacom or Pometacom) who was known to the English as King Philip. He was the last Massasoit (Great Leader) of the Pokanoket Tribe/Pokanoket Federation and Wampanoag Nation. Upon their loss to the Colonists, many managed to flee to the North to continue their fight against the British (Massachusetts Bay Colony) by joining with the Abanaki Tribes and Wabanaki Federation.[citation needed<br />Anonymousnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2887382220113280558.post-28754537695419259252015-10-11T18:39:20.480-04:002015-10-11T18:39:20.480-04:00Between 1754 and 1763, many Native American tribes...Between 1754 and 1763, many Native American tribes were involved in the French and Indian War/Seven Years' War. Those involved in the fur trade in the northern areas tended to ally with French forces against British colonial militias. Native Americans fought on both sides of the conflict. The greater number of tribes fought with the French in the hopes of checking British expansion. The British had made fewer allies, but it was joined by some tribes that wanted to prove assimilation and loyalty in support of treaties to preserve their territories. They were often disappointed when such treaties were later overturned. The tribes had their own purposes, using their alliances with the European powers to battle traditional Native enemies.<br /><br /><br /> <br /><br /><br /> Native California Population, according to Cook 1978. The 2010 U.S. Census reported 723,225 Native Americans in California.[48]<br />After European explorers reached the West Coast in the 1770s, smallpox rapidly killed at least 30% of Northwest Coast Native Americans. For the next 80 to 100 years, smallpox and other diseases devastated native populations in the region.[49] Puget Sound area populations, once estimated as high as 37,000 people, were reduced to only 9,000 survivors by the time settlers arrived en masse in the mid-19th century.[50] The Spanish missions in California did not significantly affect the population of Native Americans, but the numbers of the latter decreased rapidly after California ceased to be a Spanish colony, especially during the second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th (see chart on the right).<br /><br />Smallpox epidemics in 1780–1782 and 1837–1838 brought devastation and drastic depopulation among the Plains Indians.[51][52] By 1832, the federal government established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans (The Indian Vaccination Act of 1832). It was the first federal program created to address a health problem of Native Americans.[53][54]Anonymousnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2887382220113280558.post-42123354920181308202015-10-11T18:38:35.434-04:002015-10-11T18:38:35.434-04:00Chicken pox and measles, endemic but rarely fatal ...Chicken pox and measles, endemic but rarely fatal among Europeans (long after being introduced from Asia), often proved deadly to Native Americans. Smallpox epidemics often immediately followed European exploration and sometimes destroyed entire village populations. While precise figures are difficult to determine, some historians estimate that at least 30% (and sometimes 50% to 70%) of some Native populations died after first contact due to Eurasian smallpox.[42][43] One element of the Columbian exchange suggests explorers from the Christopher Columbus expedition contracted syphilis from indigenous peoples and carried it back to Europe, where it spread widely.[44] Other researchers believe that the disease existed in Europe and Asia before Columbus and his men returned from exposure to indigenous peoples of the Americas, but that they brought back a more virulent form.<br /><br />In the 100 years following the arrival of the Spanish to the Americas, large disease epidemics depopulated large parts of the eastern United States in the 15th century.[45] In 1618–1619, smallpox killed 90% of the Native Americans in the area of the Massachusetts Bay.[46] Historians believe many Mohawk in present-day New York became infected after contact with children of Dutch traders in Albany in 1634. The disease swept through Mohawk villages, reaching the Onondaga at Lake Ontario by 1636, and the lands of the western Iroquois by 1679, as it was carried by Mohawk and other Native Americans who traveled the trading routes.[47] The high rate of fatalities caused breakdowns in Native American societies and disrupted generational exchange of culture.<br /><br /><br />Anonymousnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2887382220113280558.post-89164734980933486482015-10-11T18:37:41.124-04:002015-10-11T18:37:41.124-04:00From the 16th through the 19th centuries, the popu...From the 16th through the 19th centuries, the population of Native Americans declined in the following ways: epidemic diseases brought from Europe; violence and warfare[28] at the hands of European explorers and colonists, as well as between tribes; displacement from their lands; internal warfare,[29] enslavement; and a high rate of intermarriage.[30][31] Most mainstream scholars believe that, among the various contributing factors, epidemic disease was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the American natives because of their lack of immunity to new diseases brought from Europe.[32][33][34] With the rapid declines of some populations and continuing rivalries among their nations, Native Americans sometimes re-organized to form new cultural groups, such as the Seminoles of Florida in the 19th century and the Mission Indians of Alta California. Some scholars characterize the treatment of Native Americans by the USA as genocide or genocidal whilst others dispute this characterization.[28][35][36]<br /><br />Estimating the number of Native Americans living in what is today the United States of America before the arrival of the European explorers and settlers has been the subject of much debate. While it is difficult to determine exactly how many Natives lived in North America before Columbus,[37] estimates range from a low of 2.1 million (Ubelaker 1976) to 7 million people (Russell Thornton) to a high of 18 million (Dobyns 1983).[36] A low estimate of around 1 million was first posited by the anthropologist James Mooney in the 1890s, by calculating population density of each culture area based on its carrying capacity. In 1965, the American anthropologist Henry Dobyns published studies estimating the original population to have been 10 to 12 million. By 1983, he increased his estimates to 18 million.[35][38][39] Historian David Henige criticized higher estimates such as those of Dobyns', writing that many population figures are the result of arbitrary formulas selectively applied to numbers from unreliable historical sources.[40] By 1800, the Native population of the present-day United States had declined to approximately 600,000, and only 250,000 Native Americans remained in the 1890s.[41]Anonymousnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2887382220113280558.post-74513227032273713602015-10-11T18:37:13.228-04:002015-10-11T18:37:13.228-04:00European exploration and colonization[edit]
Main ...European exploration and colonization[edit]<br /><br />Main articles: Age of Discovery and European colonization of the Americas<br /><br /><br /> <br /><br /><br />Discovery of the Mississippi by William Henry Powell (1823–1879) is a Romantic depiction of de Soto's seeing the Mississippi River for the first time. It hangs in the United States Capitol rotunda.<br />After 1492 European exploration and colonization of the Americas revolutionized how the Old and New Worlds perceived themselves. One of the first major contacts, in what would be called the American Deep South, occurred when the conquistador Juan Ponce de León landed in La Florida in April 1513. He was later followed by other Spanish explorers, such as Pánfilo de Narváez in 1528 and Hernando de Soto in 1539. The subsequent European colonists in North America often rationalized their expansion of empire with the assumption that they were saving a barbaric, pagan world by spreading Christian civilization.[27]<br /><br />In the Spanish colonization of the Americas, the policy of Indian Reductions resulted in the forced conversions to Catholicism of the indigenous people in northern Nueva España. They had long-established spiritual and religious traditions and theological beliefs. What developed during the colonial years and since has been a syncretic Catholicism that absorbed and reflected indigenous beliefs; the religion changed in New Spain.<br /><br />Impact on native populations[edit]<br /><br />Main article: Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas<br /><br /><br />Anonymousnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2887382220113280558.post-33080819938335178592015-10-11T18:35:30.506-04:002015-10-11T18:35:30.506-04:00Leadership was restricted to a group of 50 sachem ...Leadership was restricted to a group of 50 sachem chiefs, each representing one clan within a tribe; the Oneida and Mohawk people had nine seats each; the Onondagas held fourteen; the Cayuga had ten seats; and the Seneca had eight. Representation was not based on population numbers, as the Seneca tribe greatly outnumbered the others. When a sachem chief died, his successor was chosen by the senior woman of his tribe in consultation with other female members of the clan; property and hereditary leadership were passed matrilineally. Decisions were not made through voting but through consensus decision making, with each sachem chief holding theoretical veto power. The Onondaga were the "firekeepers", responsible for raising topics to be discussed. They occupied one side of a three-sided fire (the Mohawk and Seneca sat on one side of the fire, the Oneida and Cayuga sat on the third side.)[25]<br /><br />Elizabeth Tooker, an anthropologist, has said that it was unlikely the US founding fathers were inspired by the confederacy, as it bears little resemblance to the system of governance adopted in the United States. For example, it is based on inherited rather than elected leadership, selected by female members of the tribes, consensus decision-making regardless of population size of the tribes, and a single group capable of bringing matters before the legislative body.[25]<br /><br />Long-distance trading did not prevent warfare and displacement among the indigenous peoples, and their oral histories tell of numerous migrations to the historic territories where Europeans encountered them. The Iroquois invaded and attacked tribes in the Ohio River area of present-day Kentucky and claimed the hunting grounds. Historians have placed these events as occurring as early as the 13th century, or in the 17th century Beaver Wars.[26]<br /><br />Through warfare, the Iroquois drove several tribes to migrate west to what became known as their historically traditional lands west of the Mississippi River. Tribes originating in the Ohio Valley who moved west included the Osage, Kaw, Ponca and Omaha people. By the mid-17th century, they had resettled in their historical lands in present-day Kansas, Nebraska, Arkansas and Oklahoma. The Osage warred with Caddo-speaking Native Americans, displacing them in turn by the mid-18th century and dominating their new historical territories.[26]Anonymousnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2887382220113280558.post-36646709236885353642015-10-11T18:35:08.832-04:002015-10-11T18:35:08.832-04:00Sophisticated pre-Columbian sedentary societies ev...Sophisticated pre-Columbian sedentary societies evolved in North America. The Mississippian culture developed the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex, the name which archeologists have given to the regional stylistic similarity of artifacts, iconography, ceremonies and mythology. The rise of the complex culture was based on the people's adoption of maize agriculture, development of greater population densities, and chiefdom-level complex social organization from 1200 CE to 1650 CE.[20][21]<br /><br />While Eastern Woodlands tribes developed their own agriculture, the introduction of maize from Mesoamerica allowed the accumulation of crop surpluses to support a higher density of population. This in turn led to the development of specialized skills among some of the peoples. The Ceremonial Complex represents a major component of the religion of the Mississippian peoples, and is one of the primary means by which their religion is understood.[22]<br /><br />The Haudenosaunee (Iroquois League of Nations or "People of the Long House"), then based in present-day upstate and western New York, had a confederacy model from the mid-15th century. Some historians have suggested that it contributed to the political thinking during the development of the later United States government. Their system of affiliation was a kind of federation, different from the strong, centralized European monarchies.[23][24]<br /><br /><br />Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com